| Depression | CRS mouse model | ↓ Depression-like behavior; ↑ BDNF, ↑ dopamine, regulation of gut microbiota and metabolic pathways | Ding et al., 2021 |
| Antibiotic-treated mouse model | ↓ Depression-like behavior, ↑ BDNF and 5-HT, modulated gut-brain axis, normalized HPA axis | Sun et al., 2023 |
| Murine alcohol + LPS model | ↓ Depression-like symptoms, ↑ occludin, BDNF, and 5-HT; ↓ LPS, TNF-α, IL-1α, and IL-6 | Guo et al., 2022 |
| Alzheimer’s disease (AD) | APP/PS1 transgenic mouse model | ↓ Aβ plaques and levels; Improved cognition and gut barrier integrity | Ou et al., 2020 |
| Cardiovascular disease | Atherosclerosis (ApoE−/− mice) | ↓ Atherosclerotic lesions; Improved lipid profiles, and restored gut microbial balance | Xiao et al., 2024 |
| Abdominal aortic aneurysm (mice) | ↓ Aneurysm development, restored microbiota diversity, ↓ systemic inflammation | He et al., 2022 |
| Metabolic disease | HFD-fed rats | Protected β-cells from apoptosis, promoted differentiation, ↑ gut barrier function | Yan et al., 2024 |
| Obesity & T2D | Meta-analysis of animal studies | ↓ Body weight by 10.4%, fasting glucose by 21.2%; ↑ insulin by 26.9%, improved glucose tolerance | Liu et al., 2024 |
| Colorectal cancer | Mouse tumorigenesis model | Amuc_2172 inhibits tumorigenesis by upregulating HSP70 and enhancing CD8+ T cell activity | Jiang et al., 2023 |
| Sepsis | Mouse sepsis model | Arg-Lys-His tripeptide from AKK reduces inflammation via TLR4 inhibition | Xie and Prasad, 2020 |
| Metabolic syndrome/gut barrier integrity | Mouse gut permeability model | AKK-EVs promote gut barrier integrity | Chelakkot et al., 2018 |
| Type 2 diabetes | Clinical trial (probiotic formulation) | ↓ Postprandial glucose levels; ↑ insulin sensitivity and metabolic markers | Perraudeau et al., 2020 |
| Age-related muscle decline | Clinical trial (pasteurized AKK HB05) | ↑ Muscle strength, function, and physical performance | Kang et al., 2024 |
| Chronic respiratory symptoms | Clinical trial (ETB-F01, heat-killed AKK) | Improved respiratory symptoms and lung function | Lee et al., 2024 |
| Obesity and diabetes | HFD mouse model | ↓ Body weight gain, fat mass, insulin resistance, lowered plasma leptin and triglycerides; ↑ glucose tolerance, gut barrier integrity | Plovier et al., 2017 |
| Obesity, insulin resistance | Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study | ↑ Insulin sensitivity; ↓ plasma total cholesterol, fat mass, plasma LPS, creatine kinase | Depommier et al., 2019 |