| Biological samples (feces, plasma, urine, saliva) | Low concentration, complex matrices, limited detection sensitivity | GC-based quantification, LC-MS/MS as a complement, derivatization-assisted methods | Optimize pretreatment, use internal standards, ensure low detection limits | Chen and Lifschitz, 1989; García-Villalba et al., 2012; Kim et al., 2015; Mahdi et al., 2024; Stø et al., 2022 |
| Food and fermentation samples (dairy products, fermentation broths, culture media) | Interference from lipids, proteins, flavor compounds, and variable production levels | GC for routine analysis, HPLC as a complementary approach | Reproducibility, removal of interfering substances, standardized pretreatment | Aiello et al., 2023; Danudol and Judprasong, 2022; Hadinia et al., 2022; Shelley et al., 1963 |
| Process and environmental samples | Volatile loss, separation of homologous fatty acids, and field applicability | GC or combined GC/LC approaches | Rapid handling, sealed conditions, cost effectiveness | Ferreira et al., 2016; Koper and Grabarczyk, 2014; Zeng et al., 2013 |
| Complex mixed matrices | Multiple co-eluting compounds and difficulty in ensuring selectivity | LC-MS/MS, HRMS | High-resolution separation, simultaneous identification and quantification, high instrument cost | Chen et al., 2021; Mosen et al., 2021 |
| Simple high-concentration samples | Analysis itself is relatively straightforward, but throughput matters | GC / GC-MS | Fast routine analysis, cost efficiency, minimal complexity | Jiang et al., 2025; Kim et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2006 |